Sociological Research Methods MCQs 2026

Purposive sampling selects cases mainly because they

1. A Fit the research purpose or criteria ✓
2. B Are selected by lottery ✓
3. C Are impossible to identify ✓
4. D Refuse to participate ✓

Random error in measurement mainly produces

1. A Perfect accuracy ✓
2. B A fixed bias every time ✓
3. C Unpredictable inconsistency in results ✓
4. D A larger population ✓

Systematic error is especially dangerous because it

1. A Always increases sample size ✓
2. B Biases measurements in a consistent direction ✓
3. C Makes all data qualitative ✓
4. D Eliminates variables ✓

Triangulation in research means using

1. A Only one question ✓
2. B Only census data ✓
3. C No theory at all ✓
4. D Multiple methods, sources or investigators ✓

Sociometry is most closely related to measuring

1. A Choices and relations within a group ✓
2. B Rainfall in villages ✓
3. C Chemical composition ✓
4. D Only birth rates ✓

Correlation means that two variables

1. A Vary together in some pattern ✓
2. B Are always causally related ✓
3. C Have no measurable relation ✓
4. D Must be qualitative ✓

The unit of analysis in a study is the

1. A Bibliography style ✓
2. B Fieldwork location only ✓
3. C Entity about which conclusions are drawn ✓
4. D Type of computer software ✓

Descriptive research is mainly intended to

1. A Prove every causal law ✓
2. B Avoid observation ✓
3. C Manipulate variables ✓
4. D Describe characteristics of a phenomenon ✓

A stronger claim of causation generally requires association, nonspuriousness and

1. A Large questionnaire size ✓
2. B Correct time order between variables ✓
3. C Only one respondent ✓
4. D No theoretical framework ✓

A spurious relationship is one in which

1. A Two variables are always independent ✓
2. B The data are qualitative ✓
3. C The sample is too large ✓
4. D A third factor explains the association ✓

A longitudinal study examines social phenomena

1. A Only through maps ✓
2. B Without any data ✓
3. C Over an extended period of time ✓
4. D Only at one moment ✓

A cross-sectional study collects data

1. A At one point in time ✓
2. B Only after ten years ✓
3. C From the same people repeatedly ✓
4. D Only from archives ✓

A panel study is one in which researchers study

1. A Different people once ✓
2. B The same respondents repeatedly ✓
3. C Only printed newspapers ✓
4. D Only one institution ✓

A cohort study focuses on people who share

1. A A common time-based experience or characteristic ✓
2. B The same interview answer ✓
3. C No social background ✓
4. D Only one occupation ✓

Content analysis is primarily used to study

1. A Blood samples ✓
2. B Laboratory chemicals ✓
3. C Documents, media and messages ✓
4. D Only rural households ✓

Secondary data are data that

1. A Cannot be analyzed ✓
2. B Are always invalid ✓
3. C Come only from interviews ✓
4. D Were collected earlier by others ✓

Primary data are collected

1. A Only from old books ✓
2. B Firsthand for the current study ✓
3. C Only by government agencies ✓
4. D Without any method ✓

Informed consent means that participants

1. A Understand the study and voluntarily agree ✓
2. B Must always be paid ✓
3. C Cannot withdraw later ✓
4. D Need not know the purpose ✓

Confidentiality in research means that

1. A No data are recorded ✓
2. B Only names are published ✓
3. C Identities are protected from disclosure ✓
4. D The sample is random ✓

Anonymity is strongest when

1. A The sample is very large ✓
2. B The interview is long ✓
3. C The hypothesis is hidden ✓
4. D Responses cannot be linked to identities ✓

A pilot study is conducted mainly to

1. A Publish final results ✓
2. B Test tools and procedure before the main study ✓
3. C Replace sampling ✓
4. D Avoid ethical review ✓

Coding in social research usually means

1. A Assigning categories or numbers to data ✓
2. B Rejecting all open answers ✓
3. C Selecting villages randomly ✓
4. D Writing only conclusions ✓

Quantitative research places greater emphasis on

1. A Personal diaries only ✓
2. B Unrecorded impressions ✓
3. C Numerical measurement and statistics ✓
4. D Rejecting hypotheses ✓

Qualitative research is especially concerned with

1. A Only sample size formulas ✓
2. B Mechanical counting alone ✓
3. C Eliminating interpretation ✓
4. D Meanings, experiences and context ✓

Inductive reasoning moves from

1. A Specific observations to general patterns ✓
2. B Theory directly to a test ✓
3. C Population to sampling frame ✓
4. D Conclusion to data collection ✓

Deductive reasoning usually begins with

1. A Raw data without concepts ✓
2. B A theory or general proposition ✓
3. C A completed index only ✓
4. D A final report ✓

A Likert scale is commonly used to measure

1. A Biological age only ✓
2. B Exact household income ✓
3. C Degree of agreement or attitude intensity ✓
4. D Geographical distance ✓

Ethnography is best described as

1. A A purely mathematical proof ✓
2. B A census table ✓
3. C A laboratory experiment only ✓
4. D A detailed field study of a culture or group ✓

Snowball sampling is often useful when studying

1. A Entire census populations ✓
2. B Hidden or hard-to-reach groups ✓
3. C Randomly numbered files ✓
4. D Only school textbooks ✓

A case study is best defined as

1. A A national census ✓
2. B A random sample of villages ✓
3. C An intensive study of one case or unit ✓
4. D A statistical average ✓

Survey research is especially suitable when the researcher wants to study

1. A A single biography only ✓
2. B Attitudes of a large population ✓
3. C Chemical reactions ✓
4. D Only ancient texts ✓

A census differs from a sample survey because a census

1. A Uses only observation ✓
2. B Avoids enumeration ✓
3. C Studies only a sample ✓
4. D Covers every unit of the population ✓

A hypothesis is a

1. A Tentative testable statement ✓
2. B Final legal judgment ✓
3. C List of references ✓
4. D Type of sampling error ✓

In causal research, the independent variable is the variable that is

1. A Measured as the effect ✓
2. B Presumed to cause change ✓
3. C Always demographic ✓
4. D Never measured ✓

The dependent variable is the variable that

1. A Controls the sample ✓
2. B Remains unobserved ✓
3. C Changes as the outcome ✓
4. D Defines the population ✓

A control variable is used in research to

1. A Replace the hypothesis ✓
2. B Eliminate the population ✓
3. C Write the conclusion first ✓
4. D Hold a possible influence constant ✓

In non-participant observation, the researcher mainly

1. A Observes without taking an active group role ✓
2. B Becomes a full member of the group ✓
3. C Uses only experiments ✓
4. D Studies only documents ✓

Participant observation requires the researcher to

1. A Use only official records ✓
2. B Join or closely take part in the group studied ✓
3. C Avoid direct contact ✓
4. D Mail questionnaires only ✓

Validity in social research means that an instrument

1. A Is always short ✓
2. B Uses only statistics ✓
3. C Avoids fieldwork ✓
4. D Measures what it claims to measure ✓

Reliability of a research instrument mainly refers to

1. A Moral acceptability ✓
2. B Length of questionnaire ✓
3. C Consistency of measurement ✓
4. D Size of population ✓

Open-ended questions are especially useful for collecting

1. A Only numerical scores ✓
2. B Qualitative responses ✓
3. C Random numbers ✓
4. D Sampling frames ✓

An interview with fixed wording and order of questions is a

1. A Structured interview ✓
2. B Unstructured interview ✓
3. C Focus group ✓
4. D Participant diary ✓

Stratified sampling requires the researcher to

1. A Interview only experts ✓
2. B Select cases by convenience ✓
3. C Divide the population into strata first ✓
4. D Observe only one community ✓

Random sampling means that every unit has

1. A A guaranteed place in the sample ✓
2. B The same opinion as others ✓
3. C No chance of being selected ✓
4. D An equal known chance of selection ✓

The research design most suited to testing cause and effect under controlled conditions is

1. A Experiment ✓
2. B Case study ✓
3. C Content analysis ✓
4. D Life history ✓

In research terminology, a population means

1. A Only urban residents ✓
2. B A selected subgroup ✓
3. C The entire group under study ✓
4. D Only adult respondents ✓

A sampling frame is best described as

1. A A statistical formula ✓
2. B A list of all units eligible for sampling ✓
3. C A type of interview ✓
4. D A written consent form ✓

A representative subgroup selected from a population is called a

1. A Sample ✓
2. B Variable ✓
3. C Schedule ✓
4. D Hypothesis ✓

Turning an abstract concept into measurable indicators is called

1. A Sampling ✓
2. B Coding ✓
3. C Triangulation ✓
4. D Operationalization ✓

The first step in a sociological research process is usually

1. A Collecting field data ✓
2. B Formulating the research problem ✓
3. C Coding the responses ✓
4. D Writing the bibliography ✓

Secondary data analysis uses

1. A existing datasets collected by others for new research questions ✓
2. B only data gathered firsthand in the field always ✓
3. C sources that cannot be verified ✓
4. D information forbidden by all ethics boards ✓

A population in research terms is

1. A only the selected sample always ✓
2. B the entire group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions ✓
3. C the group of interviewers conducting fieldwork ✓
4. D a list of variables in a hypothesis ✓

Sampling error refers to

1. A mistakes in data entry coding only ✓
2. B ethical breaches in the field ✓
3. C difference between sample results and true population values due to chance ✓
4. D deliberate falsification of results always ✓

Snowball sampling is useful when

1. A every member has equal known probability of selection ✓
2. B the sample must be fully representative without bias always ✓
3. C only large government censuses are analyzed ✓
4. D the population is hard to reach and referrals chain from initial contacts ✓

Convenience sampling

1. A selects readily available subjects and may limit generalizability ✓
2. B guarantees perfect representation of the population ✓
3. C uses random number tables always ✓
4. D eliminates all researcher bias automatically ✓

Content analysis systematically examines

1. A laboratory rats in mazes exclusively ✓
2. B only live participant observation without documents ✓
3. C random guessing without categories ✓
4. D communication such as media texts for patterns ✓

A control group in an experiment

1. A always receives double the treatment ✓
2. B does not receive the treatment and provides a comparison baseline ✓
3. C is selected non-randomly by convenience only ✓
4. D replaces the need for a hypothesis ✓

Triangulation in research means

1. A relying on a single questionnaire only ✓
2. B avoiding comparison across sources ✓
3. C using multiple methods or data sources to strengthen conclusions ✓
4. D rejecting all qualitative data ✓

Ethical research requires

1. A deception without debriefing always ✓
2. B publishing private identities without permission ✓
3. C ignoring vulnerable populations' protections ✓
4. D informed consent, confidentiality and minimizing harm to participants ✓

Anonymity in research means

1. A the researcher cannot link responses to identifiable individuals ✓
2. B participants are famous public figures always ✓
3. C data are sold to marketers without restriction ✓
4. D consent is unnecessary for all studies ✓

Confidentiality means

1. A all names must be published in journals ✓
2. B identities are known to the researcher but protected from public disclosure ✓
3. C participants cannot be tracked by anyone including researchers ✓
4. D ethics boards are not involved ✓

Informed consent requires participants to

1. A sign away all rights without explanation ✓
2. B join compulsory studies without choice in all cases ✓
3. C understand the study's purpose, risks and right to withdraw ✓
4. D never receive debriefing after deception ✓

Debriefing is especially important when

1. A only archival historical research is conducted ✓
2. B participants already know every hypothesis ✓
3. C no human subjects are involved ever ✓
4. D deception has been used in an experiment ✓

A literature review in a research project serves to

1. A summarize existing knowledge and identify gaps for new inquiry ✓
2. B replace data collection entirely without fieldwork ✓
3. C hide prior studies from readers deliberately ✓
4. D eliminate the need for a research question ✓

A research design is

1. A only the final write-up chapter of a thesis ✓
2. B the overall plan linking questions, data collection and analysis ✓
3. C a list of respondents' names ✓
4. D an ethical violation by definition ✓

Cross-sectional research collects data

1. A repeatedly from the same subjects over many years always ✓
2. B only from historical documents centuries old ✓
3. C at one point in time from a sample ✓
4. D exclusively in laboratories with no humans ✓

Longitudinal research follows

1. A different random samples at one moment only ✓
2. B only extinct populations without records ✓
3. C variables that cannot change over time ✓
4. D the same subjects over an extended period ✓

A pilot study is conducted to

1. A test instruments and procedures before the main investigation ✓
2. B publish final conclusions without revision ✓
3. C replace the full sample with zero data ✓
4. D avoid any preliminary testing of questions ✓

Closed-ended survey questions

1. A require essay-length answers always ✓
2. B offer fixed response categories for statistical coding ✓
3. C prohibit any comparison across cases ✓
4. D eliminate quantitative analysis entirely ✓

Open-ended questions allow

1. A only yes/no without elaboration always ✓
2. B researchers to avoid reading responses ✓
3. C respondents to answer in their own words ✓
4. D automatic statistical correlation without coding ✓

Validity in measurement refers to

1. A consistency without regard to correctness ✓
2. B sample size alone ✓
3. C speed of data entry exclusively ✓
4. D accuracy in capturing the concept intended to be studied ✓

Random sampling helps researchers

1. A generalize findings to a larger population with known probability ✓
2. B study only friends and acquaintances conveniently ✓
3. C eliminate the need for any methodology ✓
4. D guarantee zero sampling error always ✓

A survey method typically involves

1. A secretly recording private homes without consent ✓
2. B systematically asking respondents standardized questions ✓
3. C manipulating laboratory chemicals only ✓
4. D analyzing ancient texts without respondents ✓

Structured interviews use

1. A completely open conversations with no guide ✓
2. B observation without any verbal contact ✓
3. C fixed questions asked uniformly to all participants ✓
4. D experiments with random assignment only ✓

A variable must

1. A remain constant for all units studied ✓
2. B exist only in theoretical language without indicators ✓
3. C avoid operational definitions always ✓
4. D vary across cases and be defined for measurement ✓

Non-participant observation means

1. A watching behavior without joining the group being studied ✓
2. B becoming a full member of the community always ✓
3. C conducting only laboratory experiments ✓
4. D using exclusively historical documents ✓

A case study design focuses on

1. A millions of respondents in one questionnaire wave only ✓
2. B intensive analysis of one unit such as a community or organization ✓
3. C variables without any context or description ✓
4. D hypotheses that cannot be examined empirically ✓

Correlation indicates

1. A one variable always causes the other ✓
2. B no relationship exists between variables ✓
3. C two variables tend to vary together without proving causation ✓
4. D random assignment has occurred ✓

Spurious correlation occurs when

1. A X directly causes Y with no other factors ✓
2. B variables are completely unrelated ✓
3. C research ethics are violated ✓
4. D an association between X and Y is caused by a third variable Z ✓

An experiment establishes causality more convincingly by

1. A random assignment to treatment and control groups ✓
2. B asking leading interview questions only ✓
3. C studying one case without comparison ✓
4. D ignoring control conditions entirely ✓

Statistical significance indicates

1. A the effect is necessarily large or important practically ✓
2. B causation is absolutely proven without design ✓
3. C results are unlikely due to chance alone at a chosen threshold ✓
4. D ethics approval has been granted ✓

Hawthorne effect suggests subjects may

1. A never alter conduct under observation ✓
2. B change behavior because they know they are being studied ✓
3. C behave identically in labs and natural settings always ✓
4. D invalidate all qualitative research permanently ✓

Reflexivity in qualitative research means

1. A ignoring the observer's perspective entirely ✓
2. B using only closed-ended questionnaires ✓
3. C critically examining how the researcher shapes the study ✓
4. D rejecting all self-awareness in fieldnotes ✓

Inductive reasoning in research

1. A tests hypotheses deduced from theory only without observation ✓
2. B never uses empirical evidence ✓
3. C begins with immutable laws without fieldwork ✓
4. D builds theory from observed patterns in data ✓

Deductive reasoning in research

1. A derives testable hypotheses from existing theory ✓
2. B collects data without any prior concepts always ✓
3. C refuses to use logical inference ✓
4. D ignores theoretical frameworks entirely ✓

Plagiarism in research violates ethics by

1. A citing all sources carefully ✓
2. B sharing data openly with replication files ✓
3. C obtaining informed consent properly ✓
4. D using others' work without proper attribution ✓

Ethnography as a method originated largely in

1. A mathematical economics alone ✓
2. B anthropological and sociological fieldwork emphasizing culture in situ ✓
3. C astronomical observation exclusively ✓
4. D laboratory physics experiments ✓

A focus group collects data through

1. A guided discussion among a small group of participants ✓
2. B isolated individuals without interaction always ✓
3. C covert observation without consent by default ✓
4. D pure archival work without living subjects ✓

A null hypothesis typically states

1. A the strongest possible causal claim ✓
2. B no relationship or no difference exists between variables ✓
3. C the research question in affirmative form always ✓
4. D ethical guidelines for participants ✓

In Pakistan, the Population Census is an example of

1. A participant observation in a single village only ✓
2. B a laboratory experiment on attitudes ✓
3. C large-scale official data collection for demographic research ✓
4. D an unstructured focus group without records ✓

Mixed-methods research combines

1. A only one method by strict definition ✓
2. B quantitative and qualitative approaches in one study ✓
3. C statistics without any textual data always ✓
4. D ethnography without any numbers ever ✓

Control variables are held constant or adjusted for to

1. A isolate the relationship between key independent and dependent variables ✓
2. B increase confounding in the analysis deliberately ✓
3. C replace the dependent variable entirely ✓
4. D eliminate the need for sampling ✓

Quantitative research primarily uses

1. A numerical data and statistical analysis to test patterns ✓
2. B unstructured interviews without coding ✓
3. C pure literary narrative only ✓
4. D exclusive reliance on personal diaries without counts ✓

Qualitative research emphasizes

1. A only large-scale random sampling with closed questions ✓
2. B in-depth meanings, experiences and textual or observational data ✓
3. C mathematical modeling without field contact ✓
4. D hypothesis testing with controlled experiments exclusively ✓

A hypothesis is

1. A a proven universal law without testing ✓
2. B an ethical guideline for consent only ✓
3. C a testable statement predicting a relationship between variables ✓
4. D a final published conclusion always ✓

An independent variable is

1. A the outcome measured in the study ✓
2. B the control group's label only ✓
3. C a constant that never changes by definition ✓
4. D the factor manipulated or assumed to influence another variable ✓

A dependent variable is

1. A the outcome measured to assess the effect of other factors ✓
2. B the cause manipulated by the researcher always ✓
3. C the sampling frame list only ✓
4. D institutional review board approval ✓

Operationalization means

1. A ignoring measurement altogether ✓
2. B defining abstract concepts in measurable terms ✓
3. C collecting data without any definitions ✓
4. D rejecting all quantitative indicators ✓

Reliability in measurement refers to

1. A measuring the correct concept validity always ✓
2. B proving causal laws without data ✓
3. C consistency of results when the same phenomenon is measured repeatedly ✓
4. D ethical treatment of participants only ✓