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Learning Theories and Conditioning MCQs 2026

96 questions with detailed answers · 22 from past papers · 10 quiz batches available

📚 Psychology Mcqs 📄 22 Past-Paper Qs ✓ Free · No Login Needed
🎯 Mock Test

Read each question, think about the answer, then click Show Answer to reveal the correct option and explanation. Load 10 at a time so it stays manageable — perfect for one-topic study sessions on the bus or during a break.

Page 1 of 1 Questions 1–10 of 96
  1. Q1 medium

    Learning that occurs without immediate performance is called

    1. A Trial learning
    2. B Insight only
    3. C Latent learning
    4. D Reflex learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Latent learning may remain hidden until there is motivation to demonstrate it.

  2. Q2 medium

    Taste aversion learning is unusual because it can occur after

    1. A One pairing
    2. B Continuous reward
    3. C Social praise only
    4. D Motor practice
    💡 Explanation:

    Taste aversions may be learned after a single pairing of taste and illness, even with a delay.

  3. Q3 medium

    Learned helplessness was prominently studied by

    1. A Jean Piaget
    2. B Martin Seligman
    3. C Carl Jung
    4. D Noam Chomsky
    💡 Explanation:

    Seligman's research showed that uncontrollable aversive events can produce passive, helpless behavior.

  4. Q4 hard

    Preparedness in learning means organisms more easily learn associations that are

    1. A Socially illegal
    2. B Mathematically complex
    3. C Biologically relevant
    4. D Always verbal
    💡 Explanation:

    Preparedness refers to evolutionary readiness to learn biologically important associations, such as taste aversions.

  5. Q5 easy

    Habituation is a decrease in response after repeated exposure to a

    1. A Permanent forgetting
    2. B Reinforced response
    3. C New reward
    4. D Harmless stimulus
    💡 Explanation:

    Habituation reduces responding to repeated, non-threatening stimulation.

  6. Q6 hard

    Avoidance learning is maintained mostly by

    1. A Positive punishment
    2. B Insight only
    3. C Classical extinction
    4. D Negative reinforcement
    💡 Explanation:

    Avoidance responses are strengthened because they prevent or remove expected aversive events.

  7. Q7 medium

    Escape learning occurs when a response

    1. A Stops an ongoing aversive stimulus
    2. B Creates a new reflex
    3. C Occurs without stimulus
    4. D Is never reinforced
    💡 Explanation:

    Escape learning is strengthened because the behavior ends an aversive condition already present.

  8. Q8 medium

    Sensitization is best described as

    1. A Reduced awareness
    2. B Increased response to repeated stimulation
    3. C Permanent forgetting
    4. D Random responding
    💡 Explanation:

    Sensitization occurs when repeated or strong stimulation increases responsiveness.

  9. Q9 medium

    Insight learning is most associated with

    1. A Wolfgang Kohler
    2. B Ivan Pavlov
    3. C B. F. Skinner
    4. D Edward Titchener
    💡 Explanation:

    Kohler studied sudden problem solving by chimpanzees, which he interpreted as insight.

  10. Q10 medium

    A learned mental representation of a spatial environment is a

    1. A Reflex arc
    2. B Cognitive map
    3. C Conditioned reflex
    4. D Response chain
    💡 Explanation:

    Tolman used the term cognitive map for internal representations of routes and spatial layouts.

  11. Q11 medium

    Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by

    1. A Adding pain after behavior
    2. B Removing an unpleasant stimulus
    3. C Removing a reward
    4. D Pairing two neutral stimuli
    💡 Explanation:

    Negative reinforcement increases behavior because it removes or avoids an aversive condition.

  12. Q12 easy

    Punishment is intended to

    1. A Strengthen behavior
    2. B Produce generalization
    3. C Create insight
    4. D Reduce behavior
    💡 Explanation:

    Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior by adding or removing consequences.

  13. Q13 medium

    Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person learns by seeing another person

    1. A Punished only
    2. B Forget behavior
    3. C Rewarded for behavior
    4. D Sleep after learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Vicarious reinforcement means observing a model being rewarded, which increases imitation.

  14. Q14 hard

    Latent learning was famously demonstrated in maze studies by

    1. A John Watson
    2. B Edward Tolman
    3. C Carl Rogers
    4. D Hermann Ebbinghaus
    💡 Explanation:

    Tolman showed that rats could learn cognitive maps without immediate reinforcement.

  15. Q15 medium

    A token economy uses tokens mainly as

    1. A Primary punishers
    2. B Unconditioned stimuli
    3. C Conditioned reinforcers
    4. D Reflex triggers
    💡 Explanation:

    Tokens acquire value because they can be exchanged for backup reinforcers.

  16. Q16 hard

    Biofeedback teaches control over bodily processes by providing

    1. A Delayed punishment only
    2. B False memories
    3. C Unconscious conflict
    4. D Information about physiological activity
    💡 Explanation:

    Biofeedback gives real-time physiological information so people can learn voluntary control over some responses.

  17. Q17 hard

    The Rescorla-Wagner model emphasized the role of

    1. A Prediction and surprise
    2. B Dream analysis
    3. C Fixed instincts
    4. D Self-actualization
    💡 Explanation:

    The model explains conditioning in terms of prediction error: learning is strongest when outcomes are surprising.

  18. Q18 hard

    Slot machines are often used as an example of a

    1. A Variable-ratio schedule
    2. B Continuous schedule
    3. C Fixed-interval schedule
    4. D Fixed-ratio schedule
    💡 Explanation:

    Slot machines pay after an unpredictable number of responses, which is a variable-ratio schedule.

  19. Q19 hard

    The Garcia effect is most closely related to

    1. A Taste aversion learning
    2. B Insight learning
    3. C Trial-and-error learning
    4. D Observational learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Garcia's work showed that taste aversions can form quickly and with long delays after illness.

  20. Q20 medium

    In operant conditioning, response cost is a form of

    1. A Positive reinforcement
    2. B Negative punishment
    3. C Classical conditioning
    4. D Latent learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Response cost removes a valued stimulus after behavior, so it is negative punishment.

  21. Q21 medium

    A fixed-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a fixed number of

    1. A Minutes
    2. B Responses
    3. C Trials by others
    4. D Punishments
    💡 Explanation:

    In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement follows a set number of responses.

  22. Q22 easy

    A primary reinforcer is effective because it

    1. A Is always symbolic
    2. B Satisfies a biological need
    3. C Must be learned first
    4. D Requires language
    💡 Explanation:

    Primary reinforcers such as food or water are naturally reinforcing because they meet biological needs.

  23. Q23 easy

    In Pavlovian conditioning, food before learning is the

    1. A Unconditioned stimulus
    2. B Conditioned stimulus
    3. C Neutral stimulus
    4. D Conditioned response
    💡 Explanation:

    Food naturally produces salivation before learning, so it is the unconditioned stimulus.

  24. Q24 medium

    A discriminative stimulus signals that

    1. A Memory is lost
    2. B Reinforcement is available
    3. C A reflex is impossible
    4. D No learning can occur
    💡 Explanation:

    A discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for a response because reinforcement is likely in its presence.

  25. Q25 hard

    The Premack principle states that a more preferred activity can

    1. A Replace all punishment
    2. B Reinforce a less preferred activity
    3. C Stop maturation
    4. D Eliminate motivation
    💡 Explanation:

    The Premack principle uses high-probability behaviors as reinforcers for low-probability behaviors.

  26. Q26 hard

    In classical conditioning, higher-order conditioning uses a conditioned stimulus to condition

    1. A A genetic reflex
    2. B Another neutral stimulus
    3. C A punishment schedule
    4. D A random sample
    💡 Explanation:

    A conditioned stimulus can act like a reinforcer to condition a new neutral stimulus.

  27. Q27 medium

    The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that operant conditioning focuses on

    1. A Dream symbols
    2. B Involuntary reflexes only
    3. C Voluntary behavior and consequences
    4. D Genetic transmission
    💡 Explanation:

    Operant conditioning concerns how voluntary behavior is shaped by its consequences.

  28. Q28 easy

    Positive reinforcement means

    1. A Adding a desirable stimulus after behavior
    2. B Removing a desirable stimulus
    3. C Adding an aversive stimulus
    4. D Ignoring behavior completely
    💡 Explanation:

    Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by presenting something desirable after it.

  29. Q29 easy

    Behavior followed by reinforcement is likely to

    1. A Disappear instantly
    2. B Become reflexive
    3. C Increase in frequency
    4. D Become unconscious
    💡 Explanation:

    Reinforcement strengthens behavior by increasing the probability that it will occur again.

  30. Q30 easy

    Operant conditioning is most closely associated with

    1. A John Watson
    2. B B. F. Skinner
    3. C Sigmund Freud
    4. D Max Wertheimer
    💡 Explanation:

    Skinner developed operant conditioning through work on reinforcement, punishment and operant chambers.

  31. Q31 medium

    Learning to respond only to a particular conditioned stimulus is called

    1. A Habituation
    2. B Generalization
    3. C Modeling
    4. D Discrimination
    💡 Explanation:

    Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond selectively.

  32. Q32 easy

    Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus is called

    1. A Stimulus generalization
    2. B Stimulus discrimination
    3. C Insight learning
    4. D Shaping
    💡 Explanation:

    Generalization occurs when similar stimuli evoke the learned response.

  33. Q33 medium

    The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after rest is

    1. A Stimulus discrimination
    2. B Negative reinforcement
    3. C Spontaneous recovery
    4. D Latent learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Spontaneous recovery is the return of a conditioned response after extinction and a pause.

  34. Q34 medium

    Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented

    1. A With reinforcement
    2. B Before acquisition
    3. C After punishment
    4. D Without the unconditioned stimulus
    💡 Explanation:

    The learned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus.

  35. Q35 easy

    Learning by watching others is called

    1. A Habituation
    2. B Extinction
    3. C Insight
    4. D Observational learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Observational learning occurs through watching models and consequences of their actions.

  36. Q36 easy

    The stage in which an association is first learned is called

    1. A Acquisition
    2. B Extinction
    3. C Generalization
    4. D Punishment
    💡 Explanation:

    Acquisition is the initial phase during which the conditioned stimulus and response are connected.

  37. Q37 easy

    A stimulus that initially produces no specific learned response is called a

    1. A Primary reinforcer
    2. B Neutral stimulus
    3. C Punisher
    4. D Discriminative stimulus
    💡 Explanation:

    Before conditioning, a neutral stimulus does not naturally produce the target response.

  38. Q38 easy

    In classical conditioning, salivation to the bell after learning is the

    1. A Unconditioned response
    2. B Neutral response
    3. C Conditioned response
    4. D Reflex arc
    💡 Explanation:

    After pairing, the bell produces learned salivation, which is the conditioned response.

  39. Q39 easy

    Classical conditioning was first systematically demonstrated by

    1. A B. F. Skinner
    2. B Edward Thorndike
    3. C Albert Bandura
    4. D Ivan Pavlov
    💡 Explanation:

    Pavlov showed classical conditioning by pairing a bell with food in experiments on dogs.

  40. Q40 easy

    Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to

    1. A Maturation alone
    2. B Experience
    3. C Reflex action
    4. D Temporary fatigue
    💡 Explanation:

    Learning involves enduring change produced by experience rather than maturation, fatigue or reflexes.

  41. Q41 easy

    Albert Bandura is best known for research on

    1. A Observational learning
    2. B Classical introspection
    3. C Gestalt closure
    4. D Psychosexual stages
    💡 Explanation:

    Bandura showed that people can learn behaviors by observing models, as in the Bobo doll studies.

  42. Q42 medium

    Removing a child's phone privileges after misbehavior is an example of

    1. A Negative punishment
    2. B Positive reinforcement
    3. C Classical conditioning
    4. D Stimulus generalization
    💡 Explanation:

    Negative punishment reduces behavior by removing a desirable stimulus.

  43. Q43 medium

    Adding extra chores after misconduct is an example of

    1. A Negative reinforcement
    2. B Shaping
    3. C Positive punishment
    4. D Latent learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Positive punishment reduces behavior by adding an unpleasant consequence.

  44. Q44 easy

    Money is usually classified as a

    1. A Primary reinforcer
    2. B Unconditioned stimulus
    3. C Secondary reinforcer
    4. D Neutral reflex
    💡 Explanation:

    Money becomes reinforcing through learned association with things it can obtain.

  45. Q45 medium

    Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is called

    1. A Extinction
    2. B Insight
    3. C Habituation
    4. D Shaping
    💡 Explanation:

    Shaping builds complex behavior by reinforcing gradual steps closer to the desired response.

  46. Q46 medium

    Thorndike's law of effect states that responses followed by satisfying outcomes are

    1. A More likely to recur
    2. B Immediately forgotten
    3. C Always reflexive
    4. D Unrelated to learning
    💡 Explanation:

    Thorndike proposed that satisfying consequences strengthen the connection between situation and response.

  47. Q47 medium

    A fixed-interval schedule reinforces the first response after a fixed amount of

    1. A Responses
    2. B Punishments
    3. C Extinctions
    4. D Time
    💡 Explanation:

    Fixed-interval schedules make reinforcement available after a set time period has passed.

  48. Q48 medium

    A fixed-interval (FI) schedule reinforces the first response after

    1. A every single response
    2. B a constant time period has elapsed
    3. C a varying number of responses
    4. D an unpredictable time period
    💡 Explanation:

    On FI schedules, reinforcement becomes available only after a fixed time (e.g., FI-5 min), often producing a scalloped response pattern.

  49. Q49 medium

    A variable-interval (VI) schedule reinforces the first response after

    1. A every response without exception
    2. B a fixed count of responses
    3. C a fixed clock time only
    4. D unpredictable time intervals
    💡 Explanation:

    VI schedules make reinforcement available after varying time periods, producing steady moderate response rates.

  50. Q50 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS hard

    Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules make behavior

    1. A easier to extinguish than continuous reinforcement
    2. B impossible to acquire
    3. C more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement
    4. D identical to classical extinction
    💡 Explanation:

    The partial reinforcement extinction effect: behaviors maintained on intermittent schedules persist longer when reinforcement stops.

  51. Q51 hard

    Discriminative stimulus (Sd) in operant conditioning signals that

    1. A reinforcement is available for a particular response
    2. B punishment will always follow
    3. C the UCS is about to appear
    4. D extinction has already occurred
    💡 Explanation:

    An Sd sets the occasion for responding because that response has been reinforced in its presence (e.g., a green light).

  52. Q52 hard

    Escape learning is a form of negative reinforcement in which the organism

    1. A avoids the aversive stimulus before it starts
    2. B learns only through observation
    3. C receives a reward after every response
    4. D terminates an aversive stimulus that is already present
    💡 Explanation:

    In escape learning, a response stops an ongoing aversive event (e.g., pressing a lever to turn off shock).

  53. Q53 hard

    Avoidance learning differs from escape learning because the response

    1. A adds a pleasant stimulus
    2. B prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring
    3. C is never reinforced
    4. D extinguishes the CS permanently
    💡 Explanation:

    Avoidance responses occur before the aversive event and prevent it; escape responses stop an event already underway.

  54. Q54 hard

    Premack's principle states that

    1. A a preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred activity
    2. B all reinforcers are primary
    3. C punishment is stronger than reinforcement
    4. D classical conditioning requires insight
    💡 Explanation:

    Premack principle: a high-probability behavior can reinforce a lower-probability behavior (e.g., play after homework).

  55. Q55 hard

    Latent learning, demonstrated by Tolman, shows that learning can occur

    1. A only with continuous reinforcement
    2. B only through classical pairing
    3. C without immediate reinforcement and appear later
    4. D only in humans
    💡 Explanation:

    Tolman's rats formed cognitive maps without reinforcement; performance improved once a reward was introduced — latent learning.

  56. Q56 medium

    Insight learning was famously studied by Kohler with

    1. A Pavlov's dogs
    2. B chimpanzees solving problems
    3. C Skinner's pigeons only
    4. D Watson's Little Albert
    💡 Explanation:

    Kohler's chimpanzees suddenly solved problems (e.g., stacking boxes) in ways suggesting insight rather than gradual trial-and-error alone.

  57. Q57 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Observational learning is most associated with the work of

    1. A Ivan Pavlov
    2. B Edward Thorndike
    3. C B. F. Skinner
    4. D Albert Bandura
    💡 Explanation:

    Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes learning by observing models, as in the Bobo doll experiments.

  58. Q58 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    In Bandura's Bobo doll studies, children who watched an aggressive model tended to

    1. A imitate aggressive behaviors toward the doll
    2. B show no change in behavior
    3. C become less aggressive than controls
    4. D forget the model immediately
    💡 Explanation:

    Children exposed to aggressive models reproduced similar aggressive acts, supporting observational learning of aggression.

  59. Q59 medium

    The four processes in Bandura's observational learning include attention, retention, reproduction, and

    1. A extinction
    2. B transduction
    3. C motivation
    4. D adaptation
    💡 Explanation:

    Bandura's model requires attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (incentive) to perform the observed act.

  60. Q60 hard

    Systematic desensitization for phobias is based primarily on principles of

    1. A operant punishment
    2. B insight therapy only
    3. C variable-ratio reinforcement
    4. D classical conditioning and counterconditioning
    💡 Explanation:

    Wolpe's systematic desensitization pairs relaxation with graded fear cues, using counterconditioning rooted in classical learning.

  61. Q61 hard

    Flooding as a therapy technique involves

    1. A gradual exposure with relaxation
    2. B intense prolonged exposure to the feared stimulus
    3. C token economies in wards
    4. D reinforcing successive approximations
    💡 Explanation:

    Flooding exposes the client to a highly feared CS without escape until fear extinguishes; it is more abrupt than graded desensitization.

  62. Q62 medium

    A token economy is an application of

    1. A classical conditioning only
    2. B Gestalt insight
    3. C operant conditioning principles
    4. D signal detection theory
    💡 Explanation:

    Token economies deliver secondary reinforcers (tokens) contingent on desired behaviors, later exchanged for backup reinforcers.

  63. Q63 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS hard

    Learned helplessness was demonstrated by Seligman in studies where animals

    1. A could not escape repeated aversive events and later failed to escape when escape was possible
    2. B were reinforced on VR schedules only
    3. C learned maze routes without reward
    4. D imitated aggressive models
    💡 Explanation:

    After uncontrollable shocks, dogs later did not try to escape even when escape was available — learned helplessness.

  64. Q64 hard

    Biofeedback training typically relies on

    1. A pairing CS and UCS only
    2. B operant principles to control physiological responses
    3. C punishing all autonomic activity
    4. D extinguishing primary reinforcers
    💡 Explanation:

    Biofeedback provides information about bodily processes so people can operantly modify responses such as heart rate or muscle tension.

  65. Q65 hard

    Which pairing timing is generally most effective in classical conditioning

    1. A backward conditioning (UCS before CS)
    2. B simultaneous onset only
    3. C trace conditioning with very long delays
    4. D forward short-delay: CS slightly before UCS
    💡 Explanation:

    Forward short-delay conditioning, with the CS beginning shortly before the UCS, typically produces the strongest learning.

  66. Q66 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    The key difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves

    1. A voluntary behavior shaped by consequences
    2. B schedules of reinforcement
    3. C involuntary responses elicited by stimuli
    4. D token economies
    💡 Explanation:

    Classical conditioning associates stimuli to elicit reflexive/involuntary responses; operant conditioning shapes voluntary behavior via consequences.

  67. Q67 hard

    Superstitious behavior, according to Skinner, can result from

    1. A perfect CS-UCS contiguity only
    2. B insight into cause and effect
    3. C complete extinction
    4. D accidental (noncontingent) reinforcement
    💡 Explanation:

    Skinner argued that behavior accidentally followed by reinforcement may be repeated even though it did not cause the reinforcer.

  68. Q68 hard

    In taste-aversion learning (Garcia effect), organisms readily associate illness with

    1. A visual flashing lights only
    2. B taste/smell of food
    3. C auditory tones only
    4. D tactile pressure only
    💡 Explanation:

    Garcia showed biological preparedness: nausea is especially easily conditioned to taste cues, even with long delays.

  69. Q69 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Which statement correctly distinguishes reinforcement from punishment

    1. A reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases it
    2. B both always involve adding stimuli
    3. C reinforcement decreases behavior; punishment increases it
    4. D both are forms of classical extinction
    💡 Explanation:

    By definition, reinforcement strengthens the preceding behavior and punishment weakens it, whether stimuli are added or removed.

  70. Q70 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally elicits a response is the

    1. A conditioned stimulus (CS)
    2. B neutral stimulus (NS)
    3. C unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US)
    4. D discriminative stimulus
    💡 Explanation:

    The unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) innately produces an unconditioned response without prior learning.

  71. Q71 hard

    Instinctive drift, described by the Brelands, refers to

    1. A extinction of all operant responses
    2. B the tendency for learned behavior to drift toward innate patterns
    3. C classical conditioning of fear only
    4. D continuous reinforcement schedules
    💡 Explanation:

    The Brelands found that animals' operantly trained behaviors often reverted toward species-typical instincts — instinctive drift.

  72. Q72 medium

    Contiguity in classical conditioning refers to

    1. A the CS and UCS occurring close together in time
    2. B reinforcement after every response
    3. C punishment of incorrect responses
    4. D observational learning of models
    💡 Explanation:

    Temporal contiguity — close pairing in time of CS and UCS — is a major factor supporting classical conditioning, though contingency also matters.

  73. Q73 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    After conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response is called the

    1. A unconditioned stimulus
    2. B conditioned stimulus
    3. C reinforcer
    4. D punisher
    💡 Explanation:

    Through pairing with the UCS, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

  74. Q74 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    In Pavlov's classic experiment, salivation to the bell after training is the

    1. A unconditioned stimulus
    2. B unconditioned response
    3. C neutral stimulus
    4. D conditioned response
    💡 Explanation:

    Salivation to the bell (CS) after learning is the conditioned response (CR); salivation to food is the UCR.

  75. Q75 medium

    Acquisition in classical conditioning refers to

    1. A the initial learning of the CS–UCS association
    2. B the fading of a CR after CS-alone trials
    3. C recovery of a CR after rest
    4. D responding to similar stimuli
    💡 Explanation:

    Acquisition is the phase in which the CS and UCS are paired and the CR gradually strengthens.

  76. Q76 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when

    1. A the UCS is intensified
    2. B the CS is paired with a stronger UCS
    3. C the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS
    4. D a new CS is introduced
    💡 Explanation:

    Presenting the CS alone without the UCS weakens and eventually extinguishes the conditioned response.

  77. Q77 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    Spontaneous recovery is the

    1. A first appearance of a UCR
    2. B permanent loss of a CR
    3. C generalization to new stimuli
    4. D reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period
    💡 Explanation:

    After extinction and a pause, the CR often returns briefly when the CS is presented again — spontaneous recovery.

  78. Q78 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Stimulus generalization is responding to

    1. A only the exact original CS
    2. B stimuli similar to the CS
    3. C unrelated stimuli only
    4. D the UCS but never the CS
    💡 Explanation:

    Generalization is the tendency for stimuli resembling the CS to also elicit the CR.

  79. Q79 medium

    Stimulus discrimination is the ability to

    1. A extinguish all responses
    2. B recover extinguished CRs
    3. C respond differently to the CS than to similar stimuli
    4. D pair any two stimuli
    💡 Explanation:

    Discrimination learning teaches the organism to respond to the CS but not to similar non-reinforced stimuli.

  80. Q80 hard

    Higher-order conditioning occurs when

    1. A a new NS is paired with an already established CS
    2. B only the UCS is presented
    3. C reinforcement is delayed forever
    4. D punishment replaces the CS
    💡 Explanation:

    In higher-order (second-order) conditioning, a new neutral stimulus is paired with a CS and can itself become a CS.

  81. Q81 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner's Little Albert study demonstrated

    1. A operant shaping of language
    2. B insight learning in apes
    3. C observational learning of aggression
    4. D conditioned emotional fear responses
    💡 Explanation:

    Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise, showing classical conditioning of emotion.

  82. Q82 medium

    In the Little Albert experiment, the loud noise functioned as the

    1. A conditioned stimulus
    2. B unconditioned stimulus
    3. C conditioned response
    4. D neutral reinforcer
    💡 Explanation:

    The loud noise naturally elicited fear (UCR), so it was the UCS; the rat became the CS after pairing.

  83. Q83 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Operant conditioning focuses on learning in which behavior is

    1. A influenced by its consequences
    2. B elicited only by reflexes
    3. C independent of reinforcement
    4. D always unconscious
    💡 Explanation:

    Operant (instrumental) conditioning holds that voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences.

  84. Q84 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    The Law of Effect was proposed by

    1. A Ivan Pavlov
    2. B B. F. Skinner
    3. C Edward Thorndike
    4. D Albert Bandura
    💡 Explanation:

    Thorndike's Law of Effect states that responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

  85. Q85 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    B. F. Skinner is most closely associated with

    1. A classical conditioning of salivation
    2. B operant conditioning and the Skinner box
    3. C insight learning
    4. D latent learning mazes
    💡 Explanation:

    Skinner developed operant conditioning principles using the operant chamber (Skinner box) to study reinforcement schedules.

  86. Q86 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Positive reinforcement involves

    1. A removing an aversive stimulus after a response
    2. B presenting an aversive stimulus after a response
    3. C ignoring the behavior completely
    4. D presenting a desirable stimulus after a response
    💡 Explanation:

    Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by adding a rewarding stimulus contingent on the response.

  87. Q87 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    Negative reinforcement involves

    1. A punishing with an unpleasant stimulus
    2. B decreasing behavior by removing a reward
    3. C strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
    4. D extinguishing all responses
    💡 Explanation:

    Negative reinforcement increases response rate by terminating or avoiding something unpleasant (e.g., buckling a seatbelt to stop the buzzer).

  88. Q88 medium

    Positive punishment means

    1. A removing a pleasant stimulus after behavior
    2. B adding an aversive stimulus after behavior
    3. C adding a reward after behavior
    4. D removing an aversive stimulus after behavior
    💡 Explanation:

    Positive punishment decreases behavior by presenting something unpleasant (e.g., a reprimand) after the response.

  89. Q89 medium

    Negative punishment (response cost/time-out) involves

    1. A adding shock after a response
    2. B adding praise after a response
    3. C removing an aversive buzz after a response
    4. D removing a pleasant stimulus after a response
    💡 Explanation:

    Negative punishment weakens behavior by taking away something valued (e.g., privileges, attention) contingent on the response.

  90. Q90 easy

    A primary reinforcer is one that

    1. A satisfies a biological need
    2. B has value only through learning
    3. C is always a token
    4. D works only in classical conditioning
    💡 Explanation:

    Primary reinforcers (food, water, warmth, pain relief) are innately reinforcing because they meet biological needs.

  91. Q91 medium

    A secondary (conditioned) reinforcer gains power through

    1. A innate biological drives only
    2. B genetic inheritance alone
    3. C association with primary reinforcers
    4. D extinction of the UCS
    💡 Explanation:

    Money, grades, and praise become reinforcing because they have been paired with or exchangeable for primary reinforcers.

  92. Q92 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    Shaping is the process of reinforcing

    1. A only the final complex behavior from the start
    2. B random unrelated responses
    3. C punishment of all approximations
    4. D successive approximations of the target behavior
    💡 Explanation:

    Shaping builds complex behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired response.

  93. Q93 easy

    A continuous reinforcement schedule means reinforcement is delivered

    1. A after a fixed time regardless of response
    2. B after every correct response
    3. C after an unpredictable number of responses
    4. D never during acquisition
    💡 Explanation:

    On continuous reinforcement (CRF), every occurrence of the target response is reinforced — useful for initial acquisition.

  94. Q94 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    A fixed-ratio (FR) schedule reinforces after

    1. A a set number of responses
    2. B an unpredictable number of responses
    3. C a set time interval
    4. D an unpredictable time interval
    💡 Explanation:

    FR schedules deliver reinforcement after a fixed count of responses (e.g., FR-10 = reward every 10th response).

  95. Q95 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS medium

    A variable-ratio (VR) schedule is characteristic of

    1. A hourly wages
    2. B monthly salaries
    3. C gambling and slot machines
    4. D fixed exam dates
    💡 Explanation:

    VR schedules reinforce after an unpredictable number of responses and produce high, steady rates — as in gambling.

  96. Q96 Past Paper · PPSC/FPSC/NTS easy

    Classical conditioning was discovered through experiments on dogs by

    1. A Ivan Pavlov
    2. B B. F. Skinner
    3. C Edward Thorndike
    4. D John Watson
    💡 Explanation:

    Pavlov's work on digestive reflexes in dogs led to the discovery of classical (Pavlovian) conditioning.

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